Science in the Wild: Uncovering the Ecological Secrets Hidden in Iconic Landforms

Figure: Amazing Tabletop Mountains (Tepuis)

Beneath the world's most dramatic geological formations lies an unseen universe—one where evolution has written its most extraordinary chapters in darkness, isolation, and stone. While tourists photograph the grandeur of towering mountains and yawning caves, scientists venture deeper, uncovering ecological mysteries that challenge our understanding of life itself. These iconic landforms are not merely scenic wonders; they are biological laboratories that have been running experiments for millions of years. 

Islands in the Sky: The Lost Worlds of Tepuis 

In the remote wilderness of Venezuela's Gran Sabana, massive table-top mountains called tepuis rise from the jungle like ancient fortresses. These geological titans—some dating back 2 billion years—are remnants of a vast sandstone plateau that once stretched across northern South America. But it's what lives on their summits that truly captivates scientists.​ 

Figure: Limestone Karst Ecosystems by Toby Smith 

Mount Roraima, perhaps the most famous tepui, towers 9,000 feet above sea level, its sheer cliffs creating an evolutionary island isolated for 70 to 90 million years. The result? A "lost world" ecosystem where one-third of all plant species exist nowhere else on Earth. Here, carnivorous plants have evolved unique strategies to survive in nutrient-poor soils, while tiny tree frogs skip the tadpole stage entirely—a remarkable evolutionary adaptation to the scarcity of water bodies.​ 

"Going to a tepui is like going to the moon," explains Dr. Margarita Lampo, a researcher with the Venezuelan Institute for Scientific Research. "It's like going somewhere off this planet". The harsh environment atop these summits—constant mist, rocky terrain, and extreme exposure—has driven extraordinary adaptations. Some frogs have even evolved the ability to curl into balls and roll off cliff edges to escape predators, a behavior found nowhere else in the amphibian world.​ 

Recent genetic studies have revealed an unexpected twist in the tepui story. When scientists analyzed DNA from tree frog species living on separate tepuis, they discovered these populations shared a common ancestor as recently as 5.3 million years ago—not tens of millions of years as initially believed. This finding suggests that despite their isolation, these "sky islands" aren't completely cut off from one another. Life, it seems, finds a way to bridge even the most formidable barriers. 

The Hidden Kingdoms of Karst Caves 

While tepuis isolate life above ground, karst caves create equally remarkable ecosystems beneath it. These subterranean labyrinths, carved by water dissolving limestone over millions of years, host some of Earth's most specialized organisms. In total darkness, with limited nutrients and constant temperature, evolution has sculpted creatures that seem alien to surface dwellers.​ 

Empire Cave in California ranks as the third most biodiverse cave in a study of over 1,300 California caves, harboring 76 species—at least four found nowhere else on Earth. Among them are blind amphipods, translucent isopods, and eyeless pseudoscorpions that navigate the perpetual night through touch and chemical sensing. These troglobionts, as cave-dwelling specialists are called, have abandoned features unnecessary in darkness—eyes, pigmentation, circadian rhythms—while enhancing others.  

The ecological dynamics of caves defy surface rules. Unlike most ecosystems driven by photosynthesis, caves depend on nutrients imported from outside. Cave crickets and bats venture out to feed, then return to deposit guano that fuels an entire food web. Bacteria and fungi decompose these wastes, which are then consumed by springtails and millipedes, which in turn become prey for specialized predators like cave spiders and salamanders.​ 

Recent research in karst caves has revealed microbial communities playing crucial roles in nutrient cycling, particularly nitrogen fixation—essential in these nutrient-starved environments. Each cave system harbors distinct bacterial communities shaped by its unique chemistry, hydrology, and geology. A study comparing symbiotic bacteria in cave-dwelling harvestmen (Opiliones) found that organisms from different caves showed dramatically different microbial partners, despite being the same species. The isolation creates not just evolutionary divergence in visible organisms, but in the invisible microbial ecosystems they carry. 

Vertical Biodiversity: The Mountain Gradient Phenomenon 

Mountains represent perhaps the most visible example of how landforms concentrate life. Covering just 25% of Earth's land area, mountain regions harbor more than 85% of the world's amphibian, bird, and mammal species. This extraordinary richness has puzzled scientists since the days of Darwin and von Humboldt.​ 

Photo By Ryan Gerald Nelson 

The answer lies partly in topographic complexity. As you ascend a tropical mountain, you traverse climate zones equivalent to traveling thousands of miles toward the poles—from steaming lowland rainforest through cloud forests to alpine tundra—all within a day's hike. Each elevational band creates distinct microclimates and habitats, allowing many species to coexist in a relatively small area.​ 

But mountains do more than stack habitats vertically. Their ridges, valleys, and isolated peaks create barriers that fragment populations, driving speciation through geographic isolation. The Northern Andes—the most bird-rich region on Earth—exemplifies this pattern. Here, species don't just pack tightly together; they replace one another rapidly across space, with different species occupying adjacent valleys or elevation zones. This high "species turnover" reflects millennia of evolution in geographic isolation, creating a biodiversity hotspot unlike any other.​ 

Recent research has revealed that tropical mountains combine two distinct paths to exceptional richness. Some mountains, particularly those cloaked in humid forests, achieve high biodiversity through local species coexistence—many species sharing the same space. Others, especially drier mountain ranges, build richness through high turnover—species replacing one another rapidly across the landscape. Only a few regions, like the Northern Andes, combine both patterns to create the ultimate biodiversity hotspots. 

Evolutionary Experiments in Real Time 

What makes these landforms especially valuable to science is their role as natural laboratories for understanding evolution and adaptation. The isolation—whether atop a tepui, within a cave system, or on a mountain ridge—creates replicated evolutionary experiments. Scientists can compare organisms in different caves or on different tepui summits to understand how evolution proceeds when populations are separated.​ 

Climate change now threatens these fragile systems. Forty-four of Venezuela's 49 most endangered amphibian species live atop tepuis, where they have nowhere to retreat as temperatures rise. Cave organisms, adapted to stable conditions over millions of years, face disruption from changing hydrology and temperature. Mountain species, already living near their upper elevational limits, must shift upslope or face extinction.​ 

The Unseen Wonders 

Perhaps most humbling is the recognition of how much remains unknown. Scientists estimate they've cataloged only a fraction of cave-dwelling species globally. Each newly explored cave reveals organisms science has never seen. The recently discovered supercave system in Spain's Sierra de las Nieves—connecting passages to create a 16.5-mile underground labyrinth—promises to unveil entirely new species and ecosystems.​ 

Sierra de las Nieves National Park  

These iconic landforms remind us that Earth's grandest landscapes harbor secrets far beyond their scenic beauty. They are archives of evolutionary history, ongoing experiments in adaptation, and reservoirs of biodiversity that may hold keys to understanding life itself. As we stand before Mount Roraima's cliffs or peer into the darkness of a limestone cave, we're not just witnessing geological wonders—we're glimpsing the extraordinary creativity of life finding its way into every conceivable niche, no matter how extreme or isolated.